Introduction

Over the last two posts, I’ve covered the history, location, and general layout of the Seokguram Grotto. Over the next three posts, I’ll take an in-depth look at the interior of the grotto, which includes the antechamber, connecting corridor, and inner chamber. In today’s post, I’ll specifically explore the Buddhist artwork found inside the antechamber and corridor of the Seokguram Grotto. This includes, in order, the Eight Legions (Palbujung-sang), the Vajra Warriors (Geumgang-yeoksa), and the Four Heavenly Kings (Sacheonwang).

A: The Eight Legions – The Palbujung-sang

When first entering the Seokguram Grotto, the first Buddhist artwork you’ll encounter are the reliefs adorning the immediate left and right walls. In total, there are eight reliefs dedicated to the Palbujung-sang (Eight Legions). Traditionally, starting from the left as you face them directly, they represent (from left to right): an Asura (아수라), a Kinnara (긴나라), a Yaksha (야차), and a Naga (용). On the right, also viewed directly, the reliefs (from right to left) depict a Garuda (가루다), a Gandharva (건달바), a Deva (천), and a Mahoraga (마후라가).

So, who are they? What do they represent? And has recent scholarship questioned the appearance or traditional configuration of the Eight Legions?

Originally, the Eight Legions were a group of various deities from ancient India that existed even before the advent of Buddhism. However, once incorporated into Buddhism, they became guardians of the Buddha’s teachings. The Eight Legions first appeared in a Chinese translated Buddhist sutra in the early 5th century, known as the Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras. It states:

“The assembly refers to eight groups, namely the group of Śramaṇas, the group of Brahmans, the group of Kṣatriyas, the group of Devas [Eight Legions], the group of the Four Heavenly Kings, the group of the Thirty-Three Heavens, the group of Māras…”

This passage refers to the groups that listened to the Buddha’s teachings. More specifically, in the Lotus Sutra, it says:

“Among this assembly are countless Devas, Nāgas, Yakṣas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garuḍas, Kinnaras, and Mahoragas—beings that are neither fully human nor otherwise……”

While these eight were acknowledged early on in sutras as a collective group of protectors, they were not recognized individually for their specific attributes and powers until the late 6th century. Among the eight, the highest in rank are the Devas, followed by the Nāgas, Yakṣas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garuḍas, Kinnaras, and Mahoragas. During the 6th to 8th centuries, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism began organizing and classifying existing deities according to distinct roles. It was also during this time that they were fully integrated into the Buddhist pantheon alongside Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and other deities.

Regarding their arrival in Korea, according to Cha Yunjeong’s A Study of the Eight Guardian Deity Statues of Seokguram, the Eight Legions likely first appeared as a group venerating the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in murals and hanging scroll paintings in temples during the early to mid-7th century. This is supported by the Samguk Yusa, which mentions Queen Seondeok of Silla (r. 632–647 A.D.). In the text, a monk named Yangji is said to have created images of the Eight Divine Devas for Sacheonwangsa Temple in Gyeongju, affirming the presence of the Eight Legions during the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C. – 935 A.D.).

As for surviving images, the earliest extant representations of the Eight Legions are the reliefs found inside the Seokguram Grotto. With the rise in scholarly research on these reliefs since the 2000s, there has been both greater understanding and increased ambiguity surrounding the identity of each of the Eight Legions depicted at the site.

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The Eight Legions of the Seokguram Grotto

Traditionally, the images on the inner left wall, from left to right, have been identified as an Asura (아수라), a Kinnara (긴나라), a Yaksha (야차), and a Naga (용). On the right wall, from right to left, the reliefs are said to depict a Garuda (가루다), a Gandharva (건달바), a Deva (천), and a Mahoraga (마후라가). However, in more recent years, this identification has been called into question, particularly through the research of Cha Yunjeong.

1. Naga – 용

Starting with the Naga (용), which appears on the left wall at the far right of the four reliefs, the Naga is depicted with a dragon rising up toward its shoulder and head. Its lowered left hand holds a jewel that appears to be a wish-fulfilling pearl (yugyoju). The Naga measures 240 cm in height. The head is carved in high relief, with the silhouette gradually decreasing in depth toward its body.

Among the Eight Legions inside the Seokguram Grotto, this figure is the easiest to identify. This also corresponds with Chinese Buddhist sutras that describe the appearance of a Naga as “A dragon appears on top of the head.” In China, the Naga merged with the image of dragons. In India, Nagas were worshipped as water-related deities of fertility and treasures.

The Naga inside the Seokguram Grotto rests upon a rock throne, its head slightly tilted toward its body. It appears to wear a helmet-shaped crown and a military uniform similar to those from the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589 A.D.). The attire includes wide pants and an armored breastplate. This style seems to predate the Tang Dynasty (618–907 A.D.) attire, indicating that the Naga’s clothing was influenced by models that first appeared in Silla around this period.

2. Gandharva - 건달바

Traditionally, the statue to the left of the Naga on the left antechamber wall has been referred to as a Yaksha. However, according to Cha Yunjeong, it is more appropriate to identify this image as a Gandharva. There are several reasons for this. First, it wears a lion skin on its head. In China, according to a sutra related to Gwanseeum-bosal (the Bodhisattva of Compassion), a Gandharva holds a musical instrument. However, in both Korean and Japanese depictions of Gandharvas, they wear a lion skin on their heads.

Originally, the lion skin was worn by Vajra Warriors, who were guardians of Seokgamoni-bul (the Historical Buddha) in Gandhara. Eventually, this iconography of the lion head became associated with the Gandharva in China. However, it remains unclear why this transformation occurred.

Like the neighboring Naga to the right, the Gandharva stands on a rock and faces the entrance of the grotto. Unlike the Naga inside the grotto, the Gandharva stands almost upright, with both hands placed near its chest. Its armor is similar to that of the Naga. It also has a long ribbon-shaped sash with a bow hanging in front, wide pants, and shin guards. This statue is 223 cm tall, with a silhouette that gently slopes downward from the larger head toward its body.

3. Relief #3

The identity of this statue has traditionally been thought to be a Kinnara (긴나라). However, according to Cha’s research, this identification is less certain. The figure stands upright and faces forward on its rock seat. It holds a long spear in its lowered left hand and a sutra in its raised right hand, which is placed near its chest. However, these iconographic objects cannot be definitively attributed to any one specific deity from the Eight Legions; instead, they are ambiguous.

Its attire is similar to that of the Naga relief to its right, featuring pants, a long-sleeved jacket, and armor. Additionally, there appears to be a wide scarf-like collar draped over its shoulders. The relief stands 212 cm tall. Viewed from the side, it appears flatter than the Naga and Gandharva reliefs. While it tapers downward from head to toe like the Naga and Gandharva, Relief #3 is less thick in width compared to the previous two images.

In addition to its slimmer profile, Relief #3 appears more rigid in posture. Its overall appearance is flatter, similar to the hem on the image. From this, and through comparison, Relief #3 seems stylistically different from the Naga and Gandharva images inside the Seokguram Grotto.

4. Asura – 아수라

The relief appearing at the far left on the left wall of the antechamber, next to Relief #3, is believed to be an Asura. It measures 167 cm in height. Its face is carved in high relief, while the rest of its body presents an almost straight silhouette. The figure has three faces and eight arms. However, of the eight reliefs dedicated to the Eight Legions inside the Seokguram Grotto, this one is the most damaged. The top of its head and two of its left arms are missing. Additionally, the remaining relief is extensively damaged—from its left upper arm to its chest and armor, and to its right arm. Unfortunately, it has been repaired using cement.

Moreover, the lower half of the relief, which had previously detached, was probably reattached upside down during restoration work on the grotto conducted by the Japanese between 1913 and 1915. Photographs taken in 1926 confirm the upside-down reattachment with cement.

What is particularly interesting about this upside-down portion of the Asura relief is that it appears to have been both misplaced and inverted. In a later restoration conducted in 1964, cement was likely applied over the previously joined waist area to imitate a sash.

Among the objects held by the Asura, you can find a curved ruler and scales, which symbolize governance over heaven and earth. These items trace back to images found in Tang Dynasty China. In Korea, similar depictions appear on pagodas from the late 8th to 9th centuries, such as the Three-Story Pagoda at the Inwang-dong Temple Site.

That said, the lower half currently attached to the Asura relief inside the grotto probably did not originally belong to this figure. The present relief appears much shallower in depth. Stylistically, its clothing resembles that of the Naga and Gandharva reliefs. The two halves likely do not match. Instead, it is probable that the lower portion belonged to a different original Asura relief housed within the Seokguram Grotto. Thus, the upper portion of the current Asura relief is original, while the lower portion is a secondary replacement.

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5. Relief #5

On the right side of the antechamber, the first of the Eight Legions to the far left is an image with rather ambiguous iconography. Traditionally, this figure was identified as Mahoraga (마후라가). However, Cha Yunjeong appears to challenge this in their paper titled A Study of the Eight Guardian Deity Statues of Seokguram.

In the paper, Cha identifies this relief as holding a sword in its raised right hand near its chest. Its lowered left hand has four of its five fingers bent, exposing the palm. According to Cha, “Some scholars have speculated that it may represent a Deva or Yaksha, but this cannot be confirmed.”

The attire of this relief is similar to the others, consisting of pants, a long-sleeved jacket, and armor. What differentiates Relief #5 is the use of the “foreshortening technique” to show depth in the relief. This technique is also found in the depiction of the Four Heavenly Kings inside the Seokguram Grotto. The use of this technique, typically seen in sculptures and reliefs from the peak of Unified Silla (668–935 A.D.), suggests, according to Cha, that “this relief is a copy. In other words, the left hand was carved following a foreshortened model from an original relief, but the carver was unable to replicate the realistic modeling and overall sculpture style, implying the relief was produced during a later period when such skills had declined.”

This stylistic difference, along with differences observed among some of the Eight Legions reliefs inside the Seokguram Grotto, points to variations in the times of creation of the reliefs (more on this later). The relief measures 203 cm in height. There is very little variation in the silhouette of the relief from its head to its toes. As a result, Relief #5 is more similar in style and depth to Statue #3 and the Asura statue.

6. Yaksha – 야차

Next to Relief #5 is this image, traditionally thought to be a Deva; however, Cha believes it to be a Yaksha. Both of its hands are raised to chest level, and it appears to be biting on a bead or string of beads that could be pearls. Its hair flares upward (gyokbalhyeong), which is characteristic of a Yaksha’s appearance. The hair is meant to symbolize wrath, reflecting the fierce nature of a Yaksha. As for the bead or beads it bites, these are also related to Yakshas, who are associated with treasures. Yakshas often appear like this on Silla pagodas.

The relief stands 221 cm tall, with a gentle slope in its silhouette from head to toe. This is similar to the images of the Naga and Gandharva also found inside the grotto. However, this relief has suffered significant damage. Steam cleaning was conducted on the reliefs in 1933, 1941, 1947, 1953, and 1957. We now know that intense steam cleaning can cause more harm than good. Notes about the 1957 steam cleaning of the Seokguram Grotto indicate that the surface of the Yaksha relief was especially damaged by this process. But why?

One reason for this damage could be the quality of the original stone used in constructing the Eight Legions. According to a 1961 petrographic survey, all the stones used in the Seokguram Grotto were harvested locally from a quarry on Mt. Tohamsan. Emergency restoration work conducted by the National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage in 2022 concluded that a combination of factors contributed to the damage sustained by this particular relief. Factors such as neglect and steam cleaning played a role, but “lower-quality stone” likely contributed as well—if not more—to the current state of the Yaksha relief inside the grotto.

7. Relief #7

Traditionally, Relief #7—located to the right of the Yaksha relief—has been identified as a Gandharva. Relief #7 holds a sword in its left hand and a bottle in its right. Like Relief #3, it lacks a clear identity. Some have speculated that this relief represents a Mahoraga, while others have suggested it is a Kinnara.

Relief #7 stands on a rock base and faces the entrance of the grotto. Its lower body is somewhat smaller than its upper body and is twisted slightly to the side. Its clothing is similar to that of Relief #3. The relief stands 217 cm tall, and the depth of its head and body are nearly the same, creating a relatively flat silhouette.

8. Garuda – 가루다

Both traditionally and according to Cha, this relief is identified as a Garuda. It appears to the right of Relief #7, positioned at the far right of the right antechamber wall in the grotto. The primary reason for this identification is the wing-like helmet it wears. According to one sutra about the Garuda, the deity appears as a golden-winged bird. While this relief lacks a beak—a common feature in Garuda iconography—it matches all other key attributes associated with this deity.

As for its attire, it is similar to that of other Eight Legions reliefs inside the grotto. The relief itself stands 193 cm tall. However, including the pedestal it stands upon, its total height reaches 249 cm. This pedestal was created by the Japanese during restoration work conducted in the 1910s. Like other reliefs in the Seokguram Grotto, this one is simple and flat in composition.

Three Groups of the Eight Legions Reliefs

Now that we have a better understanding of the stylistic differences among the Eight Legions inside the antechamber at the Seokguram Grotto, we can categorize the reliefs into three groups. The first group consists of the Naga, Gandharva, and Yaksha reliefs.

This group shares similar characteristics, such as natural postures, well-proportioned bodies, soft and rounded forms and clothing. They are also similar in size, standing around 220 cm tall. The stone platforms they rest upon are approximately 26–27 cm in height. Additionally, they share a similar silhouette with a gradual sloping curve from head to toe.

The second group consists solely of Relief #5. While its clothing resembles that of the first group, its style is more rigid. However, like the first group, it features softer facial features and a thicker torso. As mentioned earlier, due to the technique employed in carving the relief’s left hand, Relief #5 may be a replacement for an original that was likely destroyed.

The third group includes Relief #3, the Asura, Relief #7, and the Garuda. These reliefs share characteristics such as apparent stiffness, flat features, and thinner torsos (about 10 cm thick compared to the 15 cm thickness in the first group). Except for the Asura, Cha notes that “even the faces are not in high relief—in the Garuda’s case, it is even flatter than the body.”

Because the reliefs in the third group appear flatter than Relief #5, it suggests they were produced later. So, what does this all mean? Cha speculates that the first group represents the original reliefs, the second group (Relief #5) is an early replacement, and the third group consists of later reproductions of the originals.

But what caused the damage requiring five of the eight reliefs to be replaced? According to Cha, “One could hypothesize various causes such as a roof collapse in the antechamber or natural disasters.” Another theory proposed by Cha concerns “the uneven quality of granite used [in the construction of the original reliefs].” As part of this theory, Cha cites the example of the Yaksha relief:

“The original statues, such as the Naga and Gandharva, were carved from dense, ‘fresh’ granite, but if some statues were made from inferior stone, they would have deteriorated more quickly, prompting repeated replacement. As most other statues are still in relatively good condition, the Yaksha statue—stylistically aligned with the first group but severely damaged—may be the last remaining original statue made from low-quality stone.”

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Creation Date of the Eight Legions at the Seokguram Grotto

When examining the quality of the Eight Legions reliefs, even among the higher-quality ones such as those dedicated to the Naga, Gandharva, and Yaksha, differences become apparent when compared to other reliefs inside the Seokguram Grotto. Perhaps the most notable comparison is between the Eight Legions and the Four Heavenly Kings within the grotto. Both groups are meant to represent guardians. Beyond differences in armor style (Northern and Southern Dynasties versus Tang Dynasty), the techniques used also differ. The Eight Legions are less dynamic in their poses, and their armor is less ornate compared to the Four Heavenly Kings in the corridor.

With this in mind, Cha asserts that because the Eight Legions are lower-ranking deities, they were created less elaborately. Additionally, the Four Heavenly Kings are positioned closer to the main Buddha statue inside the corridor, while the Eight Legions are situated in the antechamber. Some scholars have argued that the Eight Legions reliefs were not part of the original design of the Seokguram Grotto but were added later. This argument gains weight from the fact that, had the Eight Legions been part of the original design, they would likely have been more skillfully rendered and expertly carved.

From stylistic comparisons with other reliefs and statues inside the Seokguram Grotto, we can infer that the Eight Legions probably date to the late 8th century, which is later than the original construction of the grotto’s principal reliefs and statues.

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B: The Geumgang-yeoksa – The Vajra Warriors

Role and Appearance

There are two Geumgang-yeoksa, known as Vajra Warriors in English, located on either side of the corridor (yeondo) that leads into the inner chamber of the Seokguram Grotto. They stand in front of the arched entryway still present in the antechamber, next to the Eight Legions.

Over time, the role of the Geumgang-yeoksa evolved. Initially, they served as divine guardians protecting Seokgamoni-bul (the Historical Buddha). Eventually, they came to be regarded as Bodhisattvas. This was later followed by their role as subduers of evil beings and spirits—a return to their original function as protectors, which is reflected in their fierce appearance. Thus, their roles can be summarized into two main functions: protectors of Seokgamoni-bul and subduers of those who violate the Dharma.

Regarding their appearance inside the Seokguram Grotto, the Geumgang-yeoksa have muscular, bare upper bodies. One hand is raised upward, while the other is placed downward in an aggressive posture. Their lower bodies are adorned with flowing skirt-like garments that appear to flutter in the wind. They have intense eyes and clenched fists. The Geumgang-yeoksa on the left has an open mouth, whereas the one on the right has its mouth firmly closed.

The Geumgang-jeo (Vajra)

What’s noticeably absent in the appearance of both Geumgang-yeoksa inside the Seokguram Grotto is that neither holds the customary vajra, or Geumgang-jeo in Korean—a double-headed weapon with a diamond-like shape.

The Geumgang-jeo originated from the lightning of Indra. Over time, the weapon’s name came to be associated with various weapons held by different deities and guardians. Some scholars, such as Yu Geunja in their academic paper titled An Iconographic Study of the Vajrapani Guardians in the Seokguram Grotto on Mt. Tohamsan, state that “the vajra represents the miraculous power of Seokgamoni-bul [the Historical Buddha]. From this perspective, the Vajra Warrior is not merely a guardian but an anthropomorphization of the Buddha’s miraculous power. The vajra (Geumgang-jeo) is a symbol of the Buddha’s secret power, and the Vajra Warrior, as an attendant, bears the ‘symbol’ of his master.”

With this in mind, the Geumgang-jeo has the power to destroy all things, including ignorance. It came to symbolize the highest and purest wisdom—namely, truth. However, the Geumgang-yeoksa of the Seokguram Grotto are without this weapon. Why?

The absence of the Geumgang-jeo first appeared in China during the late 5th to early 6th century. There are two main reasons for this absence. The first is their more traditional depiction on pagodas; the second involves the Vajra Warrior’s appearance next to Jeseok-cheon (Indra). Of the two, the Geumgang-yeoksa clearly appears under the latter rather than the former. Just inside the inner chamber, to the right, you’ll find a relief dedicated to Jeseok-cheon.

Once Jeseok-cheon appeared in Indian paintings holding a Geumgang-jeo, the Vajra Warrior rarely appeared alongside him. Jeseok-cheon (Indra) holding a Geumgang-jeo is typically depicted as a noble figure wearing a tall crown and decorative ornaments. While Geumgang-yeoksa appear in Indian artwork wearing a similar crown, they lack decorative ornaments. This distinction continues in Gandhara Buddhist art: Geumgang-yeoksa appear as attendants of Seokgamoni-bul (the Historical Buddha), while Jeseok-cheon appears in limited scenes related to birth, death, and heavenly realms.

With this context, the Geumgang-yeoksa at Seokguram Grotto do not hold a Geumgang-jeo. Instead, the weapon is held by the image dedicated to Jeseok-cheon inside the inner chamber. According to Yu, the simple reason is that “in Silla, faith in Indra [Jeseok-cheon] was stronger than in Vajra Warriors [Geumgang-yeoksa]. Therefore, the vajra (Geumgang-jeo) was given back to its rightful owner Indra, and the Vajra Warriors were depicted in martial arts poses as guardians.”

The Pairing of Geumgang-yeoksa

In Indian art, the Geumgang-yeoksa appears as a single attendant guarding Seokgamoni-bul (the Historical Buddha). However, in Chinese cave temples, they appear in pairs. According to Yu, this is probably related to Xuanzang’s Great Tang Records on the Western Regions. In this text, Yu explains, “in the section on the Kushinagara Kingdom, [it] records that beside the place where the Buddha attained nirvana, there is a stupa commemorating where the Vajra Warrior holding the vajra (Geumgang-jeo) fell, and it describes the Vajra Warrior mourning deeply. This account appears to be influenced by the Buddha’s Parinirvana Vajra Warrior Lament Sutra. The phrase ‘Vajra-holder deity Secret-Trace Warrior’ indicates plurality.”

In Esoteric Buddhism—which also appears to have influenced the pairing—the concept is based on two elements: wisdom and skill. From the 7th century onward, Esoteric Buddhism influenced Silla Buddhism, providing yet another possible explanation for the pairing of the Geumgang-yeoksa at Seokguram Grotto.

Another reason for the pairing relates to the changing roles of the Geumgang-yeoksa, which also affected their placement within temples. This practice began in China and continued in Korea. As the Geumgang-yeoksa became recognized as guardians, they were placed on either side of temple gates. This can be seen in the Geumgangmun Gates at Korean temples, such as the earliest known example at Dogapsa Temple, as well as at the entrances to Myeongbu-jeon Halls.

The Mouths of the Geumgang-yeoksa at the Seokguram Grotto

One more interesting feature of the Geumgang-yeoksa’s appearance inside the Seokguram Grotto is their mouths. The Vajra Warrior on the left has an open mouth, while the one on the right has a closed mouth. There are several interpretations of this facial feature.

Symbolically, the open mouth represents the sound “Ha,” while the closed mouth represents “Heng.” These two sounds correspond to the beginning and ending sounds in Sanskrit, and they are thought to symbolize the foundation of the Dharma—namely, its beginning and its end.

Creation Date of the Geumgang-yeoksa at the Seokguram Grotto

According to Cha Yunjeong, in her previously mentioned academic paper titled A Study of the Eight Legion Statues of Seokguram, a stone fragment was discovered during the 2013 dismantling and restoration of the Dabo-tap Pagoda at Bulguksa Temple in Gyeongju, conducted by the National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage. This stone fragment was found in the core of the upper stylobate and may have been re-used stone.

The stone fragment is a long, carved panel with a raised border. It appears to have been cut and repurposed for use inside the Dabo-tap Pagoda. Inside the panel, there is evidence of chisel marks, indicating that the panel was “erased” and reused for a different purpose.

The presence of the raised border “strongly resembles,” according to Cha, panels used for reliefs inside the Seokguram Grotto. This suggests that the repurposed stone panel might originally have been used to depict a guardian deity, such as a different Geumgang-yeoksa or Eight Legions relief.

Regarding the width of the repurposed panel found inside the Dabo-tap Pagoda, it measures 120–130 cm (between the outer edges of the raised border). This closely matches the measurements of the stone panels inside the Seokguram Grotto, which usually measure between 110–120 cm.

So what does this all mean? It might mean that the panel was once part of a now-lost Geumgang-yeoksa relief. According to Cha, it could have been “…a discarded element from a pre-existing structure replaced by the Eight Legions, a rejected or failed statue, or even a piece unrelated to Seokguram, but from a similar period and structure. While nothing is definitive, such evidence suggests that multiple changes and modifications likely occurred before Seokguram settled into its present form.”

This theory is further supported by the head, arm, and hand of a discarded granite Geumgang-yeoksa relief found in the ground during restoration work conducted by the Japanese in the 1910s on the Seokguram Grotto grounds. The head of this discarded Geumgang-yeoksa relief, now housed inside the Gyeongju National Museum, has more delicate and refined features than the one currently housed inside the Seokguram Grotto. According to Cha, it “…[stylistically] aligns more closely with the principal images inside the grotto, including the Four Heavenly Kings.”

Thus, the age of the discarded Geumgang-yeoksa relief images found at the Gyeongju National Museum aligns more closely with the age of the Four Heavenly Kings inside the grotto than with the current Geumgang-yeoksa reliefs displayed in the Seokguram Grotto. Instead, the present Vajra Warriors are more similar in style to the Eight Legions inside the grotto. While it appears that this earlier, damaged Geumgang-yeoksa relief was replaced at some point in the grotto’s history, the replacement was probably a late 8th-century alteration, occurring within the same century that the Seokguram Grotto was first built.

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C: The Four Heavenly Kings

Having exited the antechamber and seen the Eight Legions and the Geumgang-yeoksa, you now enter the corridor (yeondo). Inside this corridor, and before entering the inner chamber, you’ll find four masterful reliefs of the Four Heavenly Kings. On each side of the corridor, there are two reliefs of the Four Heavenly Kings.

On the left side of the corridor, facing the reliefs, the left relief is Jeungjang Cheonwang (South), and the right relief is Gwangmok Cheonwang (West). Turning to face the right corridor wall, you’ll find two additional reliefs: Jiguk Cheonwang (East) on the right and Damun Cheonwang (North) on the left.

Interestingly, two of the Four Heavenly Kings face inward, while the other two face outward. It is believed that these images were first created during the initial construction of the grotto in the mid-8th century.

The Four Heavenly Kings and Silla

The earliest extant examples of Four Heavenly King images in Korea are found on the reliquaries from the West Three-story Stone Pagoda and the East Three-story Stone Pagoda at the Gameunsa Temple Site in eastern Gyeongju. Both date back to 682 A.D. The second oldest extant images of the Four Heavenly Kings come from the early 8th century sarira reliquary of the Five-story Stone Pagoda in Nawon-ri, Gyeongju.

The Four Heavenly Kings are closely related to the Golden Light Sutra and the chapter titled “The Four Heavenly Kings Protecting the Nation.” In particular, according to Im Yeongae in the academic paper “The Iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings in Seokguram and Their Basis in Buddhist Scriptures,” “…the Four Heavenly Kings as protectors of the nation became widely known and accepted through this early Mahayana sutra, the Golden Light Sutra.” The sutra states, “O Buddha, we, the Four Heavenly Kings, along with the 500 spirits each commanding, will always follow and protect those who preach the Dharma of the Golden Light Sutra.”

There are three currently extant versions of the Golden Light Sutra. They were translated in 417 A.D., 597 A.D., and 703 A.D. Some scholars consider that the Golden Light Sutra may have existed and been adopted by the Baekje Kingdom (18 B.C.–660 A.D.) or Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.–935 A.D.) during the 6th century. However, while possible, this seems unlikely. A clearer record exists from the third year of King Seongdeok of Silla’s reign, which was 704 A.D. In that year, Kim Sayang, who had been dispatched to Tang Dynasty China the previous year, returned in March and presented the king with a sutra referencing the Four Heavenly Kings, according to the Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms).

The two aforementioned early Silla examples of the Four Heavenly Kings point to these guardians as images of “protectors of the nation.” The role of the Four Heavenly Kings continued through the mid to late 8th century, culminating in the reliefs found inside the Seokguram Grotto. With two of the Four Heavenly Kings facing inward and the other two facing outward, the inward-facing ones are meant to protect the inner Buddha statue, while the outward-facing ones are meant to protect the nation of Silla. More plainly, the two facing inward guard the Seokguram Grotto, while the two facing outward defend against external intrusion and invasion of Silla.

The Iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings Inside the Seokguram Grotto

Three of the Four Heavenly Kings hold swords, while Damun Cheonwang holds a pagoda. Each of the Four Heavenly Kings measures roughly 200 cm in height. Among them, perhaps the most distinctive is the relief dedicated to Gwangmok Cheonwang. At present, in addition to this relief, you’ll notice that the body and face are separate. There are several possible reasons for this detached and reattached head, such as damage, error, or later restoration. Since many of these possibilities can be discounted, it is more likely that the head was added at a later period.

Damun Cheonwang (north)

Of the Four Heavenly Kings, three hold long swords, while the fourth, Damun Cheonwang, holds a pagoda. Unfortunately, this pagoda is no longer intact. During the Unified Silla and Goryeo periods (918–1392), Damun Cheonwang consistently held a pagoda. By the mid-Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), this became the standard and continues to the present day. During the early to mid-Joseon Dynasty, the pagoda was sometimes held either by Damun Cheonwang (North) or Gwangmok Cheonwang (West). However, when the Seokguram Grotto was built, the pagoda was solely held by Damun Cheonwang.

The earliest mention of Damun Cheonwang holding a pagoda comes from the Dharani Collection Sutra, which was translated by the Indian monk Ajiguda in 653–654. For this reason, it is often thought that Damun Cheonwang’s association with the pagoda originates from this sutra. Damun Cheonwang revealed the submerged city of Hotan to the world and guarded the precious pagoda that emerged from the earth.

As mentioned earlier, the pagoda held by Damun Cheonwang inside the Seokguram Grotto is partially damaged. The upper finial of the pagoda is missing. Currently, the pagoda relief consists of a single-story body placed on a lotus pedestal with a double lotus layer. On each side of the tower body, there are windows, and at each corner of the pagoda, there are four leaf-shaped decorations. The design of the finial is unknown. It is assumed that above the single-story body there was once a low roof-like structure (bap), and on top of that, there would have been a three-story finial (chalju).

The shape of the pagoda held by Damun Cheonwang differs from the style of pagodas used during Unified Silla. It is also distinct from contemporary pagodas of that time from Bulguksa Temple, such as Dabo-tap Pagoda and Seokga-tap Pagoda. According to Im Yeongae, the style of pagoda that Damun Cheonwang holds in the Seokguram Grotto is more common in Central Asia. “Such a pagoda shape, which cannot be found in Silla, was formed in Central Asia and was popular during the Northern and Southern Dynasties in China…”

Living Spirits - Saengryeong

Underneath each of the Four Heavenly Kings stand “living spirits,” known as saengryeong (생령) in Korean. Traditionally, these images can vary in form. Sometimes they appear as animals, sometimes as demon-like figures, and other times as human-like officials. In the Seokguram Grotto, the saengryeong are depicted as holding up the Four Heavenly Kings.

In addition to being referred to as saengryeong, they are sometimes called saengryeongja (생령자), which literally means “living beings’ seats.” Regardless of their form, they are placed underfoot. Broadly, they fall into two categories: Yaksha and animals, with yaksha more commonly depicted.

As for why Yaksha are specifically depicted, it is because they are “evil spirits” or “demons” that must be subdued by the Four Heavenly Kings. While no detailed form is given to these Yaksha in Buddhist sutras, a phrase commonly used states, “…their [Four Heavenly Kings’] feet trample three Yaksha demons.” In this way, the Yaksha are meant to support and protect the higher deities—the Four Heavenly Kings—who defend and protect the Dharma.

Among the saengryeong inside the Seokguram Grotto, the one beneath the feet of Jeungjang Cheonwang (South) is especially noteworthy. This figure has a snake coiled around its left arm and holds the snake’s tail in its mouth. According to Im Yeongae, “The snake signifies primal life forces and symbolizes the deity’s immortal vitality and the eternal.” Thus, through the snake, the saengryeong is providing power to Jeungjang Cheonwang.

With all this in mind, the Four Heavenly Kings inside the Seokguram Grotto are meant to be guardians. Because of the directions they face—both inward and outward—they protect the Buddha and various Bodhisattvas inside the grotto, as well as Silla, a nation spiritually guided by Buddhism. This is evidenced by the earliest images of the Four Heavenly Kings found in “nation-defending” temples like Sacheonwangsa Temple and Gameunsa Temple.

Conclusion

Both the antechamber and the corridor leading into the inner chamber are adorned with fourteen reliefs of guardians dedicated to defending both the Buddha (and the Dharma) as well as protecting the nation over which the Seokguram Grotto presides.

The Eight Legions appear to have been produced at three different times, displaying varying degrees of skill and artistry. Yet, despite these differences, they serve their role as guardians at the grotto’s entrance, warding off any untoward influences. This is followed by the fierce presence of the Geumgang-yeoksa (Vajra Warriors) that flank the entry to the corridor leading into the inner chamber. While an earlier version of these Vajra Warriors now resides in the Gyeongju National Museum—showcasing masterful artistry akin to that of the neighboring Four Heavenly Kings inside the grotto—the present reliefs effectively intimidate those who might bring malice toward Seokguram. Finally, the masterful collection of the Four Heavenly Kings in the corridor, though partially weathered by time, admirably defend both the inner and outer portions of the grotto, with two facing inward and two facing outward. Altogether, these fourteen reliefs have performed a masterful job of protecting the Seokguram Grotto through the centuries of its existence.

Next, I will write about the inner chamber of the Seokguram Grotto. This will include the reliefs of Beomcheon (Brahma) and Jeseok-cheon (Indra), Munsu-bosal (The Bodhisattva of Wisdom) and Bohyeon-bosal (The Bodhisattva of Power), as well as the reliefs of the Ten Great Disciples of Seokgamoni-bul, and the eight statues housed inside the ten niches. So stay tuned for part 4 of the history and layout of the Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju.

Introduction

In the last post about the Seokguram Grotto, titled “The History of the Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju,” I outlined the extensive and somewhat controversial history of the grotto’s origins. In this post, I’ll discuss at some length the location, orientation, and layout of the inner grotto.

It should be remembered that the modern amenities that come with the Seokguram Grotto today aren’t a reflection of what it used to be like to visit the hermitage. Instead of there being a winding 7.5 km road that leads to a large parking lot and a fairly level pathway leading up to the grotto, the Seokguram Grotto was once a long hike up a treacherous trail some 4 km in length.

As Jeong Sihan wrote in May 1688 about the climb up to the Seokguram Grotto:

“Climbing the ridge behind Bulguksa Temple was extremely steep and perilous. I climbed about ten ri [approximately 4 km] with all my strength to get over the pass and descended about one ri to reach the Seokguram Grotto.”

This doesn’t sound like the easiest of hikes, and yet Jeong did it because the Seokguram Grotto was worth seeing despite the arduous ascent. And the further we look back in history, the worse the hike up Mt. Tohamsan must have been.

The trail that now winds its way up from Bulguksa Temple to Seokguram Hermitage is a modern feature installed in 1913 by the Japanese Governor-General during preservation work conducted on the grotto. This was done to help transport materials up to the grotto during this early Japanese restoration. When the Japanese wanted to relocate the entire grotto to Seoul in the early 1910s, the main thing holding them back was the lack of a serviceable road to transport all of the statues and reliefs from inside the Seokguram Grotto. So, thanks to its location—once very remote—we can now appreciate this amazing grotto.

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Weather at the Seokguram Grotto

According to Nam Dongsin’s academic paper titled “Seokguram Grotto as a Celestial Palace,”

“…due to Seokbulsa [Seokguram Grotto] Seokguram Grotto’s geographical setting in a southeast-facing valley, it was exposed all year to humid air currents from the East Sea. Especially when the easterly wind blew, moist air from the sea would glide up the mountain, forming thick clouds near the grotto, resulting in frequent fog and drizzle.”

Continuing, Nam states:

“According to meteorological data from 1963, taken during restoration work conducted in and around the grotto in the 1960s, there were only 89 clear days (just one in August), while rainy, cloudy, and foggy days numbered 134, 126, and 122, respectively. The average temperature inside the grotto was 2.1°C in January, while outside it was 8.3°C. Average summer humidity inside and outside the grotto exceeded 97% and 90%.”

This is all to say that the weather on Mt. Tohamsan, where the Seokguram Grotto is located, was challenging. Not only was it difficult for the grotto to withstand such conditions, but it was even more difficult for people to live in them. Of course, modern conveniences like electricity and indoor plumbing have changed this, but what must it have been like to live at Seokguram Grotto a thousand years ago—or even earlier, when the grotto was first constructed?

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Location and Orientation of the Seokguram Grotto

The Seokguram Grotto is located on Mt. Tohamsan (745 m), some 565 m up the eastern slope of the main ridge that leads to the summit of the mountain. The Seokguram Grotto is the highest temple site in Gyeongju, and it overlooks the East Sea.

The main Buddha statue inside the grotto, which will remain without an identity—at least at this point (i.e., Seokgamoni-bul, Amita-bul, or Birojana-bul)—faces the east. This is atypical, as temples in Korea tend to face the south. So why this difference?

During Japanese Colonial Rule (1910–1945), Japanese scholars viewed the orientation of the main Buddha statue as simply “following the natural terrain,” so they didn’t ascribe any special meaning to the east-facing main Buddha statue. In fact, they are quoted as saying,

“Seokguram Grotto faces the East Sea to form a pure boundary of the Buddha Land, expressing the fervent faith of the Silla people who offer praise to the morning sky rather than longing for the Western Pure Land.”

And yet—unlike Bulguksa Temple, which faces south—there’s a deliberate reason the main Buddha statue inside the grotto faces east, despite all the fog, clouds, and rain at the site.

Scholar Nam Dongsin also mentions another academic in his paper, Hwang Su-yeong. Hwang was the first to truly focus on the eastern orientation of the main Buddha statue. He argued that the reason the statue faced east—much like King Munmu of Silla’s watery grave—was to protect Silla, as a royal temple for the protection of the East Sea and for ancestral worship.

However, much of Hwang’s thinking is considered speculative, according to Nam. Instead, Nam emphasizes how the people of Silla, specifically those in Gyeongju, associated Mt. Tohamsan with the sunrise.

The late Unified Silla (668–935 A.D.) scholar Choe Chiwon (857–10th century) is quoted as saying about the location:

“The late Danwol Kim Seungsang [Kim Daeseong] built a temple at the foot of Dongak (Mt. Tohamsan), so the sun first shines on the high mountain.”

While referencing Bulguksa Temple, perhaps this quote better applies to the Seokguram Grotto’s location.

According to Nam Cheonu’s observation of the winter solstice on December 22, 1969, it was finally confirmed that the orientation of the main Buddha statue inside the Seokguram Grotto aligns with the sunrise azimuth over the East Sea. This proves that the orientation of the main Buddha at Seokguram Grotto was meant to match the winter solstice sunrise. But why?

One explanation, according to Nam, is that ancient gods originated from sun worship; and therefore, light was an important consideration for a temple’s construction. According to Nam,

“The rising sun every morning was likely accepted as the deity’s descent during daily and repetitive rituals.”

As for why the winter solstice specifically—it’s the shortest day of the year. Because the days begin to lengthen after the solstice, it has historically been regarded as the start of the year.

While there are no extant documents from the Silla period detailing winter solstice ceremonies conducted during the Silla Dynasty (57 B.C. – 935 A.D.), which is when Seokguram Grotto was constructed, we do get some idea from the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392). A Goryeo king (it’s unclear which one) is quoted as saying about the winter solstice:

“A single thread of yang energy spreads and all things embrace life,”

which highlights how this time of year was believed to revive and reawaken the natural world.

To help confirm the significance of the winter solstice to the Silla people, one need look no further than the Rock-Carved Seated Buddha in Bulgok Valley of Namsan Mountain on Mt. Namsan, also in Gyeongju. During the winter solstice, the sun’s noon altitude is at its lowest, which allows the sunlight to illuminate the entire grotto that houses the inner image of the Buddha. This statue is believed to date back to the 7th century and thus predates the construction of Seokguram Grotto.

Perhaps an even more intriguing interpretation of the main Buddha statue’s orientation at Seokguram Grotto is put forth by scholar Kang Woobang, who attributes the grotto’s orientation to Seokgamoni-bul’s (the Historical Buddha’s) enlightenment. According to some Chinese Buddhist sutras, like the Universal Light Sutra, the enlightenment of Seokgamoni-bul took place at dawn during the winter solstice. While more research is needed to fully explore this idea, it is certainly intriguing.

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The Monks Pyohun and Sinrim

So who were the first people to live at Seokguram Grotto, if anyone? The reason this is important is because the first monk or monks at a temple or hermitage often reflect the founder’s intention. According to the Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms in English, both Sinrim and Pyohun were invited to reside at both Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage.

The Samguk Yusa specifically states,

“Pyohun stayed early on at Bulguksa Temple and always commuted to the heavenly palace [Cheongung].”

Before diving too deeply into this quote and how it influenced the interior of Seokguram Grotto, who was Pyohun? According to the Simgu Jangwontonggi by Gunyeo (923–973 A.D.), Kim Daeseong received teachings from the monk Pyohun about Hwaeom Buddhism:

“It is said that while Pyohun the Great Virtuous One resided at Hwangboksa Temple, Daeseong Gakgan came to his [Pyohun] room and asked, ‘Please teach me the Three Roots of Samadhis.’ Pyohun then ordered the assembly to leave the room. All the others went outside, but Gullyun remained and eavesdropped through a window. At that moment, Pyohun explained: ‘The phrase “At one time the Buddha…” is the scripture of the Samadhi of the Flower Garland Sutra; “First attainment of perfect enlightenment” refers to the Ocean Seal Samadhi; and “Seated upon the lion throne” pertains to the Lion’s Roar Samadhi.’”

This quote demonstrates how Kim Daeseong once sought clarity under the guidance of the monk Pyohun. Prior to the construction of Seokguram Grotto, Pyohun resided at Jangsusa Temple from the first year of King Sinmun of Silla’s reign (r. 681–692 A.D.). It was here that he performed rites for the deceased King Munmu of Silla (r. 661–681 A.D.). Around 750 A.D., and after the death of Uisang-daesa (625–702 A.D.), Pyohun became the abbot of Hwangboksa Temple. While Pyohun was a disciple of Hwaeom Buddhism as descended from the lineage of Uisang-daesa, he didn’t work near Buseoksa Temple like other disciples of Uisang-daesa. Instead, Pyohun collaborated closely with King Gyeongdeok of Silla (r. 742–765 A.D.) in the Silla capital of Gyeongju. This suggests that Hwaeom Buddhism had risen in prominence and stature in Silla society, thanks to Pyohun’s leadership.

So it’s not a stretch to say that through his relationship with Kim Daeseong as a Hwaeom Buddhist teacher, as well as his position as abbot of Jangsusa Temple—to which Kim had established which Kim had founded—Pyohun would have had some influence over the interior design of the grotto. Not only that, but Pyohun had a close connection to King Gyeongdeok of Silla, who was the reigning monarch during the construction of both Bulguksa Temple and the Seokguram Grotto.

Specifically, and according to Seo Jimin’s academic paper titled “The Background of the Construction of Seokguram Hermitage and a Hwaeom Doctrinal Interpretation of the Iconography of the Main Buddha Statue,” she states, citing the Samguk Yusa:

“…it is stated that King Gyeongdeok, who had no heir, appealed to the Heavenly Emperor for a son.”

King Gyeongdeok of Silla is appealing to the monk Pyohun for personal reasons: he wants a son to inherit his crown.

The other monk who was one of the first two residents of both Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto was the monk Sinrim. Like Pyohun, Sinrim also likely provided the ideological basis, in part, for the design of Seokguram Grotto. Sinrim studied directly under the monk Sangwon, who was a disciple of Uisang-daesa. Sinrim would later travel to Tang China (618–907) in the mid-8th century to study under the monk Yungsun. After returning to Silla, Sinrim led several large Dharma assemblies at such temples as Buseoksa Temple and Bulguksa Temple. Gunyeo referred to Sinrim as

“the legitimate spiritual grandson of Buseoksa Temple,”

which reflects his importance in Korean Hwaeom Buddhist teachings.

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Heavenly Palace

Connecting the two quotes about the “heavenly palace” and King Gyeongdeok of Silla’s preference for a son, we gain a clearer insight. We know that both Pyohun and Sinrim were the first monks to reside at Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage. Since the quote states, “Pyohun stayed early on at Bulguksa Temple and always commuted to the heavenly palace [Cheongung],” it has been inferred by some scholars, like Nam Dongsin, that the “heavenly palace,” or Cheongung in Korean, refers to the Seokguram Grotto.

This is even more fully developed through another quote from the Samguk Yusa that’s referenced above. This quote states: “I have had no luck and have no heir [son]. I ask you to petition the Supreme Deity to grant me an heir.” Pyohun prayed to this Supreme Deity and returned to King Gyeongdeok of Silla to report: “The deity said, ‘A daughter is possible, but a son is not appropriate.’” The king answered, “I want the daughter changed to a son.”

Pyohun went once more to petition the Supreme Deity, who answered the monk: “It is possible, but if you have a son, the country will be in danger.” As Pyohun was about to descend the mountain to consult King Gyeongdeok once more, the Supreme Deity called him back and said, “Heaven cannot mingle with humans. Now, you move about the nearby villages like a commoner and leak heavenly secrets. Do not communicate anymore.”

What’s important about this quote—besides the closeness between Pyohun and King Gyeongdeok of Silla—is that the heavenly king grants the earthly king’s wish (to have a son inherit the throne), with Pyohun acting as a mediator between the two: the human world and the heavenly realm.

From all this, we can gather that, acting as the abbots of Bulguksa Temple and the Seokguram Grotto, both Sinrim and Pyohun had a major influence on King Gyeongdeok of Silla. Additionally, the realm that Pyohun travelled from—namely, the earthly (Bulguksa) to that of the heavenly (the heavenly palace)—is communicated to us through the Samguk Yusa. Through this connection, it’s almost certain that the “heavenly palace” refers to the Seokguram Grotto. As Nam Dongsin states: “It is natural to interpret that Pyohun resided at Bulguksa Temple at the foot of the mountain and always traveled to the heavenly palace (Seokbulsa) [Seokguram]. That Pyohun was the abbot of Seokbulsa [Seokguram] but did not reside there underscores that Seokbulsa [Seokguram] was not a place for permanent human residence.”

It was a place where the earthly world attempted to communicate with the heavenly—and this would be expressed through the form of Hwaeom Buddhism and the design of the interior of the Seokguram Grotto.

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The Interior of the Seokguram Grotto

It’s from this concept of the “heavenly palace” that we can grasp the intended meaning of the interior that Kim Daeseong was attempting to convey. But before we understand this imagery, we must first have a better understanding of the layout of the interior of the Seokguram Grotto: both the antechamber and the inner chamber.

Upon entering the antechamber, you’ll notice two sets of reliefs to both your immediate right and left. These are the Eight Legions, or Palbujung-sang – 팔부중상 in Korean. These are fronted by a pair of fierce Geumgang-yeoksa (Vajra Warrior) reliefs. They stand on either side of the corridor that leads into the inner chamber.

The corridor connecting the antechamber and the inner chamber contains a collection of four reliefs (two on each side). These are the Four Heavenly Kings, or the Cheonwang – 천왕 in Korean. They are some of the oldest extant images of the Four Heavenly Kings in Korea.

Beyond these, and having entered the inner chamber of the Seokguram Grotto, you’ll find the commanding central presence of the main Buddha statue inside the grotto. To the front, and facing inward on either side of the entrance to the inner chamber, you’ll find a pair of reliefs. The relief to the left of the entryway is that of Beomcheon (Brahma), while the image to the right is that of Jeseok-cheon (Indra). These two are pairs, and there will be much more on them in a future post.

Next to these two reliefs, you’ll find another pair of reliefs. To the right of Beomcheon-bul, you’ll find a relief dedicated to Bohyeon-bosal (The Bodhisattva of Power), and to the left of Jeseok-cheon, you’ll find a relief dedicated to Munsu-bosal (The Bodhisattva of Wisdom).

Lining the interior of the grotto’s inner chamber, and starting with the image to the right of Bohyeon-bosal and continuing around to the image to the left of Munsu-bosal, you’ll find ten monk-like reliefs. There is considerable debate about whom these may be—whether they are itinerant monks or the Ten Great Disciples of Seokgamoni-bul (The Historical Buddha). Again, more on this debate in a future post.

Of these ten monk-like reliefs, you’ll find a central, elevated image dedicated to an eleven-headed Gwanseeum-bosal (The Bodhisattva of Compassion). This relief is absolutely masterful, and it’s situated to the rear of the main Buddha statue. Unfortunately, if you’re only looking from behind the modern glass partition, you won’t be able to see this Buddhist masterpiece. You either have to enter the grotto or view it in pictures. This eleven-faced image of Gwanseeum-bosal rests in the center of the ten reliefs of the Ten Great Disciples of Seokgamoni-bul, with five reliefs on either side.

Finally, in the niches above the Ten Great Disciples of Seokgamoni-bul reliefs, you’ll find statues dedicated to various Bodhisattvas. Outside of the main Buddha statue inside the grotto, these are the only other statues inside the Seokguram Grotto. Unfortunately, two of the ten statues are missing, which leaves just eight images.

For now, this is all. In several future posts, I’ll look at all of the groupings of reliefs—starting with those dedicated to the Eight Legions, continuing on to the Geumgang-yeoksa and Four Heavenly Kings reliefs in both the antechamber and the corridor to the grotto. I’ll then examine the inner chamber with the reliefs dedicated to Jeseok-cheon, Beomcheon, Munsu-bosal, Bohyeon-bosal, the Ten Great Disciples of Seokgamoni-bul, and the eight statues housed inside the ten niches. Lastly, I’ll take a closer look at both the main Buddha statue and the eleven-headed Gwanseeum-bosal relief. So there’s a bit more to look forward to as we examine the history, imagery, and beauty of the Seokguram Grotto.

Hello, everyone!

This is Dale Quarrington from Dale’s Korean Temple Adventures, and this is my first post here on Substack. I decided to write some of my longer posts here on Substack, as they don’t quite fit on my website or in my writing at the Korea Times.

For my first post, I thought I would discuss the history of the Seokguram Grotto. In particular, I thought I would write about the founding of the grotto—when it was created, who may have created it, and why they created it.

Hope you enjoy! And if you do enjoy, please do subscribe.

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What’s in a Name?

Every year, around one million visitors come to visit Seokguram Hermitage and its grotto. The grotto is among the finest pieces of Buddhist architecture and artwork in the world, making Seokguram Hermitage and its grotto famous far beyond the borders of South Korea.

However, Seokguram Hermitage and its grotto weren’t always known as “Seokguram.” Instead, and for a much longer period of time, the grotto was known as Seokbulsa Temple. During Japanese Colonial Rule (1910–1945), and while conducting preservation work on the grotto, a roof tile was discovered with the inscription “Seokbul” written on it. This roof tile dates back to Unified Silla (668–935 A.D.).

It’s believed that the main reason the temple was given this name, Seokbulsa Temple, was because of the central Buddha image inside the inner chamber. It was only during the late Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) that Seokbulsa Temple (Seokguram Hermitage) became a subsidiary hermitage of Bulguksa Temple.

As for the name “Seokguram,” it first appears in the Diary of Life in the Mountains by Jeong Si-han (1625–1707). According to Kang Huijeong’s paper “The Birth of a Masterpiece: The Myth of Seokguram in the 20th Century,” Kang states how the scholar Jeong traveled from Wonju to see the grotto. Jeong had decided to make the long journey as part of a tour of the Eight Provinces’ famous scenic sites. Included in this list was Seokbulsa Temple (Seokguram). After climbing more than ten ri (approximately 4 km) of steep mountain trail from Bulguksa Temple, he finally arrived at the stone grotto. As Kang states about Jeong,

“The effort of sweating profusely to climb the mountain had truly paid off. Though made by human hands, the structure [the Seokguram Grotto] was so wondrous and mysterious that it seemed as if it had been shaped by the heavens.”

Following this, and during Japanese Colonial Rule (1910–1945), the site became known as Seokguram Hermitage. This first happened in 1909, when Sekino Tadashi (1868-1935) gave a lecture entitled “On the Transition of Korean Art” at the Ministry of Finance. This lecture was later compiled into a text entitled Han Koyo, where the name “Seokguram” is briefly mentioned. This name seemingly stuck, as other Japanese scholars used the name as well, like Yanagi Muneyoshi (1889-1961).

However, in 1915, the Korean linguist An Hwak published an article titled “The Art of Joseon” in the magazine Hakjigwang. This article is considered the earliest known Korean art theory written by a Korean. In this article, An references “Gyeongju Bulguksa, Seokbulam,” which clearly indicates that there was still some confusion as to what to call Seokguram Hermitage/Seokbulsa Temple.

By the 1920s, however, “Seokguram” seems to have become the norm. On June 3, 1923, The Dong-A Ilbo ran a new serialized column entitled “Wonders of the World.” In this series, the first installment was about the Seokguram Grotto:

“The Buddha statues of Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju are said to be the oldest and greatest works of art in the East…”

This was subsequently followed by tours led by The Chosun Ilbo to Gyeongju. In one of their travelogue, it was titled “The Buddha Statue of Seokguram is the Guardian of National Defense.”

Lastly, by October 1930, with the popularization of travel to Gyeongju by both Japanese and Koreans alike, schools would also visit the grotto. In fact, and once again according to Kang Huijeong’s paper “The Birth of a Masterpiece: The Myth of Seokguram in the 20th Century,” “…Jeong Bong-deuk, a fourth-year student at Ewha Girls’ High School, published a serialized travel essay titled ‘Travelogue of Gyeongju’ in The Chosun Ilbo. She wrote of ‘visiting Dabo-tap Pagoda, the finest of all Silla pagodas,’ ‘taking commemorative photos to honor the imperishable art made by our ancestors,’ and then climbing to Seokguram after passing through Bulguksa Temple. Her description of Seokguram was no different from that of Japanese sources—it was exactly what she had learned from them [the Japanese].”

Both through indoctrination (textbooks and education) and social norms during Japanese Colonial Rule, the name “Seokguram” seems to have stuck—both among the Japanese and Koreans. And it has remained in use to the present day.

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The Founding of Seokguram Hermitage (Seokbulsa Temple)

One of the biggest controversies is when construction on the Seokguram Grotto started and ended. Based upon the Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms in English, most scholars agree that Seokguram Hermitage began construction in 751 A.D., alongside Bulguksa Temple. As for when Seokguram Hermitage was completed, there’s more controversy. According to the Samguk Yusa, Kim Daeseong died 24 years later, in 774 A.D., after which the Silla state completed the project. However, it doesn’t give a specific date of completion. According to Seo Jimin’s paper titled “The Background of the Construction of Seokguram and a Hwaeom Doctrinal Interpretation of the Iconography of the Main Buddha Statue,”

“…some argue that Seokguram was completed during Kim’s lifetime, while Bulguksa was finished under King Hyegong (r. 758–780 A.D.).”

As for who originally constructed Seokguram Hermitage, we can look to the Samguk Yusa once more for answers. According to the Samguk Yusa:

“Daeseong [Kim Daeseong, 700–774 A.D.] liked to hunt as he was growing up and was once lodging in a little village at the base of Mt. Tohamsan after catching a bear. He dreamed that the bear changed into a ghost who threatened that in his next life he would catch and eat Daeseong if Daeseong killed him. Daeseong then asked for forgiveness in the dream, and the ghost-bear asked him to build a temple on his behalf. Daeseong vowed to do just that, and when he woke up, he discovered that he had been perspiring profusely. Daeseong then gave up hunting and built Jangsusa Temple [Long Life Temple, in English] on the site where he caught the bear. His mind and heart were by now completely turned to Buddhism. He then built Bulguksa Temple for his parents in his present life [Kim Munyang and his wife] and Seokbulsa Temple for his parents from his previous life [Gyeongjo]. Two Buddhist monks, Sillim and Pyohun, were made to reside there. All this is recorded in the Old Records. Meanwhile, the official record of the temple gives the following information: ‘During the reign of King Gyeongdeok [r. 742–765 A.D.], Daeseong, the chief minister, commenced the construction of Bulguksa Temple in the tenth year of Tianbao [751]. It had not yet been completed, however, when Kim Daeseong passed away on the second day of the twelfth month of Jiayin, the ninth year of the Dali [774]. The Silla government then stepped in and completed it.”

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Who Was Kim Daeseong?

So, who was Kim Daeseong? Well, according to Kang Woobang, in his academic paper titled “Bulguksa Temple and Seokbulsa Temple,” Kim Daeseong and his father Kim Munyang are identified as Kim Daejeong and Kim Munryang.

Kim Munryang served as the chief minister (jungsi) from 706–711 A.D. under King Seongdeok, while Kim Daejeong served as chief minister to King Gyeongdeok from 745–750 A.D. Additionally, it’s been argued by some, like Hwang Suyeong, that Kim Daeseong was, in fact, a member of the Kim royal family and that Seokguram Hermitage was built as a royal temple for the Kim clan of Gyeongju.

With that being said, after conceptualizing both Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage (Seokbulsa Temple), Kim Daejeong (Daeseong) is said to have started the construction of both after his retirement as chief minister.

However, as a chief minister, would Kim Daejeong (Daeseong) have had both the political clout and financial backing to create two temples in Gyeongju? Also, why would he build both temples on Mt. Tohamsan in eastern Gyeongju?

According to Choi Wansu, in his published article titled “Why Has Bulguksa Temple Turned into Kim Daeseong’s Private Temple?” Choi proposes that both temples were originally patronized by King Gyeongdeok, not by Kim Daeseong as described in the Samguk Yusa, where he is named as the single patron of the temples.

Choi argues that King Gyeongdeok built the two temples to commemorate his deceased father, King Seongdeok (r. 701–737 A.D.). He goes on to propose that King Wonseong (r. 785–798 A.D.) later asserted that Kim Daeseong was the patron in order to conceal King Gyeongdeok’s achievements. The reason for this concealment lies in the relationship between Kings Wonseong and Gyeongdeok. King Wonseong usurped the throne; and therefore, ended the previous royal lineage of Silla that started with King Taejong Muyeol (r. 654–661 A.D.).

This lineage continued until the reign of King Hyegong (r. 765–780 A.D.), who was the son of King Gyeongdeok. However, King Hyegong was assassinated. The subsequent Silla rulers afterwards all came from the line of King Wonseong’s descent.

So why is this important? Well, according to Choi, this was a way to erase the memories of the previous lineage. The ancestral shrines of Kings Gyeongdeok and Seongdeok were destroyed. They were replaced by shrines for King Wonseong’s father and grandfather. In the same vein, a new narrative in the form of Kim Daeseong in the Samguk Yusa was put forth to erase one of King Gyeongdeok’s greatest achievements—Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto.

What Choi’s argument revolves around is the reliability of the Samguk Yusa. Choi isn’t the first to question the reliability of this historic text, written by the monk Iryeon (1206–1289) around 1281. The Samguk Yusa is filled with history, myths, and legends surrounding the history of Korea, as well as stories related to Korean Buddhism. The only problem with this is the blurring of fact and fiction through its inclusion of myths and legends.

Because of this, some historians have decided to look to the Samguk Sagi, or History of the Three Kingdoms in English, by Kim Pusik (1075–1151), which was completed in 1145, instead. The only problem with this is that neither Bulguksa Temple nor Seokguram Hermitage (Seokbulsa Temple) are mentioned. Not only that, but Kim Daeseong doesn’t appear, either.

So, with a lack of information, we stick to what we do actually have. And in this case, that’s what I quoted earlier. Specifically:

“It [Bulguksa Temple] had not yet been completed when Kim Daeseong passed away on the second day of the twelfth month of Jiayin, the ninth year of the Dali reign [774]. The Silla government then stepped in and completed it [Bulguksa Temple].”

According to Choi Sun-ah, in “Filial Piety and Politics: Rethinking Patronage and Filial Piety at Seokguram and Bulguksa in Gyeongju, Korea,” Choi states:

“…some of those who believe that Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage must have been national temples think that filial piety could not be the only reason for the construction of such grandiose monuments, which is stated as the reason for the construction of Bulguksa Temple in the Samguk Yusa.”

Furthermore, historians who don’t fully trust the Samguk Yusa highlight the inseparability of state and religion. Typically, Buddhist temples that were constructed earlier on, after the acceptance of Buddhism as a state religion—like Sacheonwangsa Temple and Gameunsa Temple—were state-defending temples. They were built to protect the nation from invasion by the Wa (Japanese), as well as to pray for the well-being of the royal family.

Choi directs us to another scholar, Seong Nakju, who makes two very valid points to counter the narrative that Kim Daeseong was the sole patron of Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage. Instead, Seong proposes that someone like King Gyeongdeok, through royal patronage, may have constructed the two amazing temples.

The first argument that Seong makes is to counter the idea that the two temples were “national or royal temples.” The way Seong does this is by directing us to the list of major temples (seongjeon saweon) of Unified Silla (668–935 A.D.) that were directly governed by the Silla state. Several of these lists appear in the Samguk Sagi, but both Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage are not mentioned.

The second argument that Seong makes to support the idea of Kim Daeseong as the sole patron of the two grand temples is that the Wa (Japanese) were no longer a threat during the time that Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage were being built. In fact, there had been “no report of any invasion by them [Wa] since the early seventh century.” Knowing this negates the notion that Seokguram Hermitage and Bulguksa Temple were built to protect Silla from Japan.

Further bolstering the claim that Kim Daeseong was the sole patron of Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage is an early 11th century manuscript fragment found inside Seokga-tap Pagoda at Bulguksa Temple. The manuscript fragment was discovered during conservation work on the historic pagoda. In part of the text from this fragment, it reveals:

“This pagoda [Seokga-tap Pagoda] was founded by Kakgan Daeseong, the chief minister during the reign of King Gyeongdeok. It was begun in the first year of the Tianbao era (742) and finished during King Hyegong’s reign.”

What’s interesting about this quote is that it solely mentions Kim Daeseong. Not only that, but this record predates the Samguk Yusa. While the quote doesn’t contain any background information, it does quite a bit to bolster Kim Daeseong’s claim as the patron of the two temples.

The reason for the construction of both Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage lies in the Silla belief at the time that Buddhist merit-making combined with filial piety (praying for the well-being of one’s deceased parents) would gain merit through acts like temple construction. This merit could, ultimately, be transferred to Kim Daeseong’s dead parents.

But to throw a bit of a wrench into things, there is an argument made by some scholars, like Seo Jimin, that the amount of resources and labor needed to complete Seokguram would have been enormous. Also, based upon the differing styles of statues and reliefs inside the grotto—including the central Buddha, the Four Heavenly Kings, and the Eight Legion in the antechamber—they differ in age by more than 50 years. So perhaps Seokguram took 50 years to complete, or it was repaired later by the state of Silla. Either way, it’s something to consider as we look more closely at Kim Daeseong.

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Other Sites for Filial Piety in Gyeongju

So, if Kim Daeseong decided to build both temples out of a sense of filial piety, what was the context for this practice during the Silla Dynasty (57 B.C.–935 A.D.)? Are there other examples?

One example from Unified Silla is the construction of Gameunsa Temple, which means “Repaying Gratitude Temple” in English. Originally, the temple was constructed to defend Silla from the piracy of the Japanese. According to the Samguk Yusa:

“…King Munmu [r. 661–681 A.D.] wanted to quell the Japanese military. Therefore, he began to construct a temple. He passed away before completing [the temple], and became a dragon in the sea. His son [King] Sinmun [r. 681–692 A.D.] ascended to the throne and completed [the construction of the temple] in the second year of the Kaiyao era (682).”

Very obviously, Gameunsa Temple was first commissioned by King Munmu to defend Silla. However, the purpose and meaning of the temple changed when King Sinmun completed it. The temple was completed out of gratitude to his deceased father for his concern for the peace of Silla.

Another example from Silla concerning a Buddhist temple and filial piety is Hwangboksa Temple, or “Imperial Fortune Temple” in English, which is also located in Gyeongju. Specifically, a reliquary set was found inside the three-story pagoda at Hwangboksa Temple. The inscription on the lid of the reliquary states that Queen Sinmok, who was the wife of King Sinmun, and her son, King Hyoso (r. 692–702 A.D.), built the pagoda in 692 A.D. for the benefit of the late king’s afterlife.

When both Queen Sinmok and King Hyoso died, King Seongdeok enshrined a statue of Amita-bul (The Buddha of the Western Paradise) in the reliquary, alongside a sutra, inside the pagoda in 706 A.D. So, the royal family of Unified Silla—from King Sinmun to King Seongdeok—commissioned Buddhist works to help commemorate their parents. (Sound familiar?)

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Silla Society, Funeral Rites, and Burial

It’s also around this time—a couple hundred years before the construction of Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage—that we see a seismic change in Silla governance. In the early sixth century, we see advancements in agriculture, and we also see a movement toward the Sinicization of political institutions.

It’s also at this time that the nation is formally called “Silla,” and the Chinese term “wang” (king) is adopted, replacing the native title of maripkan in the political sphere. In 527 A.D., Buddhism becomes the state religion. This helps centralize power around the Silla royal family, shifting it away from regional factional beliefs centered on shamanism.

Another interesting change around this time is the shift in funeral ceremonies and burial practices. Previously, especially for royals, bodies were buried inside wooden chambers covered by stone mounds. These tombs can still be found in central Gyeongju, and they date back to the mid-fourth to sixth centuries.

However, this practice would change at the start of the early to mid-sixth century due to the introduction of Buddhism to Silla. Instead of burial, people were now being cremated. Tombs were also now being made on low hills and at the foot of large mountains surrounding Gyeongju, including Mt. Namsan, Mt. Seondosan, and Mt. Tohamsan.

A large number of Silla urns are now housed in museum collections. Many of these urns were accidentally discovered or looted long ago, rather than formally excavated. While the original locations of these urns are unknown, historians believe they were originally buried near the mountains of Gyeongju. For example, King Beopheung was buried in the foothills of Mt. Seondosan, and King Gyeongdeok was buried near Mt. Namsan.

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Mt. Tohamsan in Eastern Gyeongju

As for Mt. Tohamsan, it was regarded as one of the major mountains during Unified Silla. It was considered the primary sacred mountain in the east of Gyeongju. Mt. Tohamsan was also associated with the cult of Seok Talhae (r. 57–80 A.D.), the fourth king of Silla. According to tradition, Seok Talhae is said to have climbed to the top of Mt. Tohamsan when he first entered Silla, and his statue was later enshrined on the mountain. Rites for Seok Talhae were conducted annually.

Because of this, scholars tend to view Mt. Tohamsan as a location associated with state protection rituals. This symbolism was further reinforced by the location of King Munmu’s tomb in the East Sea, just east of Mt. Tohamsan, which served as a symbolic guardian protecting Silla from Japan.

However, during the late seventh century, the foothills of Mt. Tohamsan started to change. The tomb of King Sinmun was constructed on the left foothills of Mt. Tohamsan. This was followed by the tombs of Kings Hyoso and Seongdeok. The spread of royal tombs around Mt. Tohamsan points to a reshaping of the mountain’s role—from a place of state protection to a site for royal tombs and filial piety rites conducted by descendants.

A good example of this filial piety shift specifically taking place on Mt. Tohamsan can be found at Gamsansa Temple, or “Gam Mountain Temple” in English. Two stone artifacts point to this religious and social transformation:

• The Stone Standing Maitreya Bodhisattva of Gamsansa Temple

• The Stone Standing Amitabha Buddha of Gamsansa Temple

Both are now National Treasures and are located in the National Museum of Korea in Seoul.

While not much of the original Gamsansa Temple still stands, the temple site remains in the foothills of Mt. Tohamsan. The two stone statues were first commissioned in 719 A.D. by a retired official named Kim Chiseong (also known as Kim Chijeon, 652–?) for his family members, including his deceased parents.

Kim was a middle-rank aristocrat, serving in the sixth of the seventeen official ranks of Silla. He eventually rose as high as deputy minister. After retiring, Kim founded a temple that became Gamsansa Temple on an estate he donated.

Based on the inscriptions on the statues:

• The Maitreya Bodhisattva (Mireuk-bosal) statue was dedicated to his mother.

• The Amitabha Buddha (Amita-bul) statue was dedicated to his father.

So if Kim Chiseong could build a temple and commission two stone statues for his parents, the higher ranking Kim Daeseong probably had an even greater chance of creating both Bulguksa Temple and the Seokguram Grotto.

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Conclusion

Based on the royal tombs of the 8th century, the cinerary urns, and the stone statues created at Gamsansa Temple, Mt. Tohamsan appears to have transformed into a primary location for royal and aristocratic burial and commemoration.

It’s in this atmosphere and time that Kim Daeseong began to build Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage (Seokbulsa Temple), either starting in 742 A.D. or 751 A.D., depending on the source. Either way, construction appears to have commenced in the middle of the 8th century, when Mt. Tohamsan had also undergone a spiritual and social transformation in Silla.

It’s completely plausible—based on his rank, finances, and the mountain’s significance—that Kim Daeseong was the sole patron of Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Hermitage, as stated in the Samguk Yusa. And it’s probably largely thanks to Kim Daeseong that we now get to enjoy the Seokguram Grotto.

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